Westart by documenting that the net policy rate was effectively zero whenever the BOJ’s stated policy was to guide the policy rate to “as low a level as possible.” Thus, the ELB regime of a zero net policy rate is observable. We identify the following three ELB spells: March 1999 to July 2000, March 2001 to June 2006, and December 2008 to date. During these spells, the BOJ made a stated commitment of not exiting QE if inflation remained belowacertain threshold. Our baseline SVAR has two monetary policy regimes: an ELB regime and a regime of positive net policy rates. There are four variables: inflation, output (measured by the output gap), the policy rate, and excess reserves. The model’s first two equations are reduced-form equations describing inflation and output dynamics. The reduced-form coefficients can be regime dependent. The third equation is the Taylor rule. The policy rate cannotbesettotheTaylorrate(therateprescribedbytheTaylorrule)ifitliesbelow theELB.Thefourthequationspecifiesthecentralbank’ssupplyofexcessreservesunder QE. The exit condition requires that the central bank end QE only if the Taylor rate is positive and inflation exceeds a given threshold. Thus, regime endogeneity (where the regime’s occurrence depends on inflation and output) arises not only from the ELB, but also from the exit condition. Weconductnonlinearimpulse-responseandcounterfactualanalyses,inwhichnonlinearity arises from multiple regimes and the nonnegativity constraints on excess reserves. The regime andassociated inflation and output dynamicschangeendogenously over the horizon. We find thefollowing: • QEis expansionary. When the current regime is an ELB regime, the response of output andinflation toanincreaseinexcess reserves is positive. However, the statistical significance of this result depends on our measure of the output gap. • Policy-induced exits from QE can be expansionary or contractionary, depending on the history.2 We consider an alternative and counterfactual history for the July 2006 exit. Because the alternative history is chosen judiciously such that it differs from the baseline history solely in terms of policy shocks, the response is policy induced. An exit wouldhavebeenexpansionary for MayorJune2006,andnearlysofor April 2006. However, it would have been contractionary until March 2006 because of the higher level of excess reserves and the weaker macroeconomic conditions at exit. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the related literature and states the paper’s contributions. Section 3 documents the case for the monetary policy regime’s observability. Section 4 describes the SVAR model. Section 5 explains the estimation strategy and the results. Section 6 provides the nonlinear impulseresponse and counterfactual analyses. Section 7 provides extension and robustness checks. Section 8 concludes the paper. regime, the BOJ held mostly short-and medium-term Japanese government bonds. It was not until April 2013 that the BOJ under Governor Kuroda started to address the maturity structure of long-term Japanese government bondholdings. As a result, reserves began to increase at a far higher rate in 2013. 2To address possible concerns of spurious causality, where the monetary policy regime appears to cause the output (if the inflation–output dynamics is not adequately captured by our model), we have estimated a hidden-state Markov-switching model of Hamilton (1989) with a censored Taylor rule. We find that such a modeldoesnotgeneratethesort of impulse responseprofiles found in Section 6.1.
Wehaveconstructed a regime-switching SVAR in which the observable regime is determined by the central bank responding to economic conditions. The model was used to study the dynamic effect of not only changes in the policy rate and the reserve supply, but also of shifts in the regime chosen by the central bank. Our nonlinear counterfactual analyses show that whether a QE exit is expansionary or contractionary depends on the history.
The exit bonus of the transitional effect arises from conducive macroeconomicreduced-formdynamicsunder P.However,thetransitional effect can be negative if the economy after the exit does not remain under P for long, or if the policy rate hikes after exit are sufficiently aggressive. Such a situation can occur with a combination of relatively high inflation, a low output gap, and low trend growth at the exit. The flip side of the exit bonus of transitional effects is the entry cost to QE. We find an entry cost to QE in Japan; that is, entering QE with no significant increase in thereservesupplywouldbecontractionary.Thus,thecentralbankwouldwish to raise the reserve supply aggressively upon entry. Although this study provides an estimate of the effect of a change in the IOR under QE, it is not precise. Because the policy rate changes in tandem with the IOR under QE, the effect is captured by the lagged policy-rate coefficient in the reduced form for QE. The very limited variability of the IOR in the sample is responsible for the imprecise estimates. This is pertinent because the “exit” by the Fed in the fall of 2015 is, in our definition, a continuation of QE with a zero net policy rate, but with a higher IOR.
AppendixD: TwostructuralmodelswithrecursiveSVARrepresentation This Appendix provides two examples. In both examples, there are two variables (inf lation and the policy rate) with two equations (which are the Fisher equation and the Taylor rule) with predetermined inflation. The agents of the model are forward-looking in the first example and backward-looking in the second. The model in each example admits therecursive SVARrepresentation in whichtheshockintheinflationequationis uncorrelated with the shock in the Taylor rule. D.1 Aforward-looking example Thefirst example is the following two-equation system: TheModel: (Fisher equation) Et−1(rt −πt+1) =ρ+εt−1 (Active Taylor rule) rt =ρ+φπt +vt φ>1 (D.1) where Et−1 is the expectations operator conditional on information available in date t −1,rt is thenominalinterest rate in date t, πt+1 is the inflation from date t to t +1,and (εt vt) are serially independent and mutually independent. The Fisher equation states that the ex ante real interest rate be equal to some constant ρ plus the real rate shock ε. There is a 1-period information lag in that the ex ante real rate from date t to t +1 is formed in date t −1. We can reduce the system to one equation by eliminating rt from the system: φEt−1(
φEt−1(πt)−Et−1(πt+1) =εt−1 Definetheexpectedinflation rate ξt as ξt ≡Et(πt+1) (D.2) (D.3) By the law of iterated expectations that Et−1(πt+1) = Et−1[Et(πt+1)],wecanrewritethe above equation as: φξt−1 −Et−1(ξt) =εt−1. Shifting time forward by one period and rearranging, we obtain ξt = 1 φEt(ξt+1)+ 1 φ εt (D.4) This is the equation studied in, for example, Section II of Lubik and Schorfheide (2004, equation (7)), except that the variable ξ here has the interpretation of the expected, rather than actual, inflation rate (the difference in interpretation comes from our assumption of one-period information lag). The only stable solution is ξt = 1 φ εt (D.5) Nowrequirethattheinflationrateispredetermined.Thentheinflationforecasterror πt+1 −Et(πt+1) is zero, so the actual inflation rate is determinate as in πt+1 =Et(πt+1)≡ξt = 1 εt (D.6) φ
By shifting time back by one period and denoting ˜εt ≡ 1φεt−1, and supplementing the equation by the Taylor rule, we obtain a two-equation system TheSVARRepresentation: πt =˜εt rt =ρ+φπt +vt (D.7) This is a recursive VAR, with the serially uncorrelated reduced-form inflation shock ˜εt that is uncorrelated with the monetary policy shock vt. D.2 Abackward-lookingexample Drop the one-period information lag but continue to assume that inflation is predetermined (so πt+1 =Et(πt+1)). Assume passive monetary policy. The model is (Fisher equation) Themodel: rt −πt+1 =ρ+εt (passive Taylor rule) rt =ρ+φπt +vt0<φ<1 (D.8) Eliminating rt from the system gives: πt+1 = φπt + (vt − εt).With0 <φ<1, the only stable solution is the “backward” solution: πt =(vt−1 −εt−1)+φ(vt−2 −εt−2)+φ2(vt−3 −εt−3)+··· So rt−1 =ρ+φπt−1+vt−1 =ρ+vt−1+φ(vt−2−εt−2)+φ2(vt−3−εt−3) +φ3(vt−4 −εt−4)+··· (D.9) (D.10) Nowtake the Fisher equation, shift time back by one period, solve for πt,andcombine the resulting equation with the Taylor rule to obtain: TheSVARrepresentation: πt =−ρ+rt−1−εt−1 rt =ρ+φπt +vt (D.11) This representation embodies the SVAR identification: (i) the first equation is a reduced form(theerrortermεt isuncorrelatedwiththeRHSvariable rt−1 (see(D.10))and(ii)the reduced-form shock εt−1 is uncorrelated with the monetary policy shock vt. AppendixE: Constructionoferrorbands The log likelihood function is additively separable in the partition (θAθBθC).Consequently, if θB is the ML estimator of θB, for example, and if Avar(θB) is its asymptotic variance, a consistent estimator, Avar(θB), of the asymptotic variance is the inverse of 1/T times the Hessian of the likelihood function where T is the sample size. For θB,we draw the parameter vector by generating a random vector from N(θB1T Avar(θB)).We do the same for and θC.ForθA, we draw the parameter vector according to the RATS
manual. That is, let Σ here be the ML estimator of the 2×2 variance-covariance matrix Σofthebivariateerrorvectorinthereducedform.Itissimplythesamplemomentofthe bivariateresidualvectorfromthereducedform.WedrawΣfromtheinverseWishartdistribution with TΣandT −K astheparameters,whereK isthenumberofregressors.Let ˜ Σbethedraw.Wethendrawreduced-formcoefficientvectorfromN(b˜Σ⊗(TSXX)−1), wherebhereistheestimatedreduced-formcoefficientsandSXX isthesamplemoment of thereduced-formregressors.Thenumberoftheparameterdrawsis400andthenumber of simulations for the Monte Carlo integration for each draw is 1000. Co-editor Kjetil Storesetten handled this manuscript. Manuscript received 26 January, 2018; final version accepted 16 October, 2018; available online 30 October, 2018.
テイラー・ルール(英: Taylor rule)とは、ジョン・ブライアン・テイラーが1993年に提唱した[1]、実質金利とインフレ率と産出量ギャップに基づき適切な政策金利を決める方程式のこと。実質金利が高まった場合、インフレ率がインフレターゲットよりも高まった場合、ギャップが大きくなった場合は、政策金利(実質金利)を上げなくてはいけないという考え方に基づく。
に限れば、1パーセントだけのインフレーションの増大には、1パーセント以上の名目金利の上昇をするよう(特に、上記の方程式での二つの係数の和のの、により)中央銀行は促すべきである。実質金利は(近似的に)名目金利からインフレーション分を差し引いたものであるから、の規定が、インフレーションの上昇のときのために適用する、実質金利は増大すべきである。(インフレーションが働くよりも名目金利が増大するよう要求する)インフレーションが増大するときに実質金利が経済を冷ますよう「1対1以上に」増大すべきであることは、しばしばテイラー原理(英: Taylor principle)と呼ばれてきた。[9]
^ abTaylor, John B. (1993) "Discretion versus Policy Rules in Practice," Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, 39, pp.195-214 (press +). (The rule is introduced on page 202.)
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